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AbstractExamining information requirements according to the negotiation categories of structure, strategy, procedure, outcome and behavior, this article calls for data on action types, results, and sources; on determinants of target susceptibilities to action types; on blockage and its costs; on issues under consideration, changing proposals and parties' changing positions on issues; on parties' perceived payoffs, and evaluations of win, loss and deadlock; on parties' evaluation of their security points, and efforts to alter security points; on potential tradeoffs; and on available and evolving conceptions of justice.

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AbstractThree approaches are rested as explanations of the outcome of the Oslo negotiations. Ripeness theory explains the onset of the Madrid negotiations, which then talked themselves into a mutually hurting stalemate, but it accounts only for the beginning of Oslo, not its outcome. Process analysis shows neither a formula-detail nor a concession-convergence process but a hybrid constructed substantive process with two turning points of toughness, alongside a two-phased procedural process created by the need to officialize the proceedings. This approach explains rather well the nature of the constructed outcome. Contending theories of mediation bring out the importance of seeking a settlement rather than a resolution, of turning track two into track one diplomacy, and of using a powerless rather than a muscled mediator. But they also show how the type of outcome reached at Oslo prepared its own undoing when brought back home.

This article provides a survey of the development of Islamic ethical literature. It argues that this literature promotes not only submission to Allah Almighty and the divine law, it also portrays ethics as a path that offers a peaceful inner life and elicits cooperative behavior from others. This article surveys the most significant literary forms currently available in Persian and English from the first six centuries of Islamic civilization produced in West, South and Central Asia that provide appealing sources of ethics.1 It demonstrates that the variations in style and format of this literature derives from the efforts of Muslim poets, viziers, teachers and scholars to overcome the political difficulties in challenging corruption, tyranny and oppression. It argues that this literature offers an antidote to antagonistic Western stereotypes of Islam and also provides inspiration to teachers, parents and active citizens throughout the world. This article is divided into three sections. The first section summarizes five reasons to study Islamic ethics, the second section goes on to define the term Islamic ethics and the third section explains the historical development of both Arabic and Persian as modern languages which were used to promote ethics. This background allows for the discussion in the body of the paper extolling the character and benefits of eight forms of literature taken in the historical sequence of their appearance. It concludes that this literature is of great value for people around the world; the more the non-Muslims learn of this literature, the more highly they will appreciate their Muslim neighbors for their ethical ideals and human values.

AbstractAlthough analysts have long held that bias disqualifies a mediator, more recent analysis, pioneered by Saadia Touval, shows that bias can be quite helpful to mediation under the assumption that the mediator delivers the agreement of the party toward which it is biased. Of course, the mediator is still expected to be trustworthy in dealing with the parties and reliable in communications. Prenegotiation and diagnosis, probably the least analyzed early stages of negotiation, are shown to be crucial to a successful negotiation and the necessary preconditions to an efficient and effective process. Leverage, the term for "power" in negotiation, is a scarce resource and takes the form of effective persuasion rather than material inducements and punishments; it depends above all on the need of the conflicting parties for an agreement, which in turn depends on the attractiveness of their alternatives or security points (BATNAs).

AbstractPeace negotiators concentrate their mediation efforts on leaders of armed factions in their pursuit of political agreements to stop a civil war, and they exclude noncombatants and interest groups that can "spoil" the bargaining. This practice of exclusion often creates agreements that fail during implementation. Track two diplomacy efforts can overcome this failure by providing channels to include other interest groups and active parties. In Tajikistan, participants in a sustained dialogue intervention provided crucial influence to the negotiation of a civil war settlement, but the agreement itself only created a greater centralization of political power and institutions that excluded public political participation. However, participation in the dialogue transformed members and even some observers into effective practitioners developing a large number of public associations committed to conflict resolution. Therefore, the Inter-Tajik Dialogue in Tajikistan illustrates a successful strategy for overcoming the dynamics of exclusion that drive political settlements between military leaders. More importantly, sustained dialogue demonstrates possible strategies for building peace by stimulating the development of a more inclusive civic culture.

AbstractHow, under current conditions, do negotiators find a resolving formula that is enticing to the parties in internal conflicts and that lasts? The search for an answer about this process can take three paths: One that focuses on the context provided by the conflict itself, another that examines the content of the appropriate outcome, and a third that looks at the conduct of parties in their negotiating roles. A particular challenge comes from the internal and international reactions – primarily Islamic – to the encroachment of globalization into their area, where the challenge is to move the conflict from non-negotiable to negotiable. A wide range of conflicts will be used to illustrate the conceptual discussion.